The Most Important Cities of Islam

1The three holy cities

The Prophet ﷺ said: "Do not set out on a journey except to three mosques: the Sacred Mosque (in Makkah), this mosque of mine (in Madinah), and al-Aqsa Mosque (in Jerusalem)" (al-Bukhari, Muslim). These three places are the heart of the Muslim world.

Makkah – the House of Allah

Makkah lies in a barren valley between mountains. Here stands the Kaaba, the simple cube-shaped house that Allah calls the first house "set up for mankind, blessed and a guidance for the worlds" 3:96. The Quran tells how the Prophet Ibrahim and his son Ismail raised its foundations and prayed: "Our Lord, accept this from us" 2:127.

Ibrahim left his wife Hajar and the young Ismail in this valley, trusting in Allah, and prayed that the hearts of people would incline towards them 14:37. Hajar ran back and forth between the hills of Safa and Marwah in search of water, until the spring of Zamzam gushed forth. To this day pilgrims retrace her steps, and to this day they drink from that water.

Around the Kaaba stretches al-Masjid al-Haram, the Sacred Mosque. It is the destination of the Hajj, the great pilgrimage that every Muslim should perform once in a lifetime if able 3:97, and of the Umrah, the lesser pilgrimage, which can be made all year round. And Muslims all over the world face Makkah in every prayer: the Kaaba is the qibla 2:144. Wherever you pray, in London, Dubai or Jakarta, you are turned towards the same point as millions of others.

Makkah is also where the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was born, and on a nearby mountain, in the cave of Hira, he received the first revelation. You can learn more about his life in the chapter on the Prophet ﷺ.

Madinah – the radiant city

Madinah, formerly Yathrib, welcomed the Prophet ﷺ and his Companions after the Hijra in 622. Muslims call it lovingly al-Madinah al-Munawwarah, "the radiant city". Here the first Muslim community grew, and here many surahs of the Quran were revealed.

At its centre stands al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the Prophet's Mosque, whose first form the Prophet ﷺ built himself with his Companions from mud bricks and palm trunks. He said: "A prayer in this mosque of mine is better than a thousand prayers elsewhere, except the Sacred Mosque" (al-Bukhari, Muslim). Beneath the green dome lies the resting place of the Prophet ﷺ, and beside him his two closest Companions, Abu Bakr and Umar, may Allah be pleased with them. Between his house and his pulpit lies the Rawdah, of which he said: "Between my house and my pulpit is a garden from the gardens of Paradise" (al-Bukhari, Muslim).

On the edge of the city stands Quba Mosque, the first mosque the Prophet ﷺ founded after his arrival. Many scholars relate the verse about the mosque "founded on God-consciousness from the first day" 9:108 to it. The Prophet ﷺ used to visit Quba every Saturday, walking or riding, and pray there (al-Bukhari, Muslim).

Jerusalem – al-Quds and al-Aqsa Mosque

The third holy city is al-Quds, Jerusalem, the city of many prophets. Surah al-Isra' opens with the Night Journey: "Glory be to the One who took His servant by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque, whose surroundings We have blessed" 17:1. From here the Prophet ﷺ was raised through the heavens, and here, according to the reports, he led the prophets in prayer.

Jerusalem was also the first qibla: after the Hijra the Muslims prayed towards Jerusalem for about sixteen or seventeen months, until the direction of prayer was changed to the Kaaba al-Bukhari; compare 2:144. On the Noble Sanctuary, al-Haram ash-Sharif, stand al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock with its golden dome, places of prayer and of remembrance of the shared story of the prophets, from Ibrahim to Dawud and Sulayman to Isa, peace be upon them all.

2Cities of history and learning

Wherever Islam took root, mosques were built, and around the mosques grew schools, libraries and markets. Some cities became beacons of knowledge whose light still shines today.

Damascus

Damascus is among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Under the Umayyads it became the capital of a realm that reached from Andalusia to Central Asia. Its jewel is the Umayyad Mosque, built under the caliph al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik and famous for its mosaics. According to tradition, the head of the Prophet Yahya (John the Baptist) is honoured within it. Sahih Muslim reports that Isa, peace be upon him, will descend at the end of time by the white minaret east of Damascus. Generations of scholars taught in the schools of this city.

Baghdad

Baghdad was founded by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur as a round city on the Tigris and became the capital of the Abbasids. It is famous for the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah), where scholars translated works from Greek, Persian and Indian into Arabic and developed them further. Here worked the mathematician al-Khwarizmi, whose book gave algebra its name. Great imams taught and rest in Baghdad, such as Abu Hanifah and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founders of two schools of law, as well as Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani.

Cairo

Cairo is the city of a thousand minarets. Its spiritual heart is al-Azhar, founded in the 10th century and one of the oldest places of learning in the world still teaching without interruption. Students from all over the world come here to study Quran, hadith, law and Arabic. Imam ash-Shafi'i, founder of one of the four great schools of law, also rests in Cairo. The present Grand Imam of al-Azhar is closely linked to the dialogue that found expression in Abu Dhabi (more on this below).

Istanbul

Since 1453 Istanbul has been one of the great cities of the Muslim world. Its skyline is shaped by domes and slender minarets: the Süleymaniye Mosque of the architect Sinan and the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, which many call the Blue Mosque because of its tiles. Especially moving is the tomb of the Companion Abu Ayyub al-Ansari in Eyüp: it was he who hosted the Prophet ﷺ in his home in Madinah after the Hijra, and he died at an advanced age before the walls of the city.

Córdoba

In medieval Andalusia, Córdoba was one of the most brilliant cities of Europe, with libraries, mosques and circles of scholars. Its Mezquita, begun under Abd ar-Rahman I, with its forest of red-and-white double arches, is today a World Heritage Site admired by visitors from all over the world. Great scholars were born in Córdoba: the philosopher and judge Ibn Rushd, the scholar Ibn Hazm and Imam al-Qurtubi, whose commentary on the Quran is still read today.

Fes

In Fes, Morocco, a woman, Fatimah al-Fihriyyah, founded al-Qarawiyyin in the 9th century. It is considered one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the world that still exists. The winding old city of Fes with its craft quarters is a living testimony to Islamic urban culture.

Kairouan

Kairouan in Tunisia was founded by the commander Uqba ibn Nafi and is one of the oldest Islamic cities in North Africa. Its Great Mosque with its mighty minaret was for centuries a centre of the Maliki school of law. Here worked Imam Sahnun, whose al-Mudawwanah is one of the foundational texts of that school.

Bukhara and Samarkand

On the Silk Road in Central Asia lie two cities that seem to come from a fairy tale. In Bukhara Imam Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari was born, the compiler of Sahih al-Bukhari, the most reliable collection of hadith. He rests near Samarkand, whose Registan square with its three madrasas is among the finest ensembles of Islamic architecture. The physician and scholar Ibn Sina also came from the region of Bukhara.

3Holy cities of Shia Muslims

Makkah, Madinah and Jerusalem are holy to all Muslims. Beyond them, some cities in Iraq and Iran are especially dear to Shia Muslims: they hold the shrines of members of the Prophet's ﷺ family, the Ahl al-Bayt, peace be upon them. Pilgrims come to them from many countries, and many Sunni Muslims also visit these places with reverence. For love of the Prophet's ﷺ family is shared by Sunni and Shia Muslims alike: in every prayer they send blessings upon Muhammad and upon the family of Muhammad, just as the Prophet ﷺ taught his Companions (al-Bukhari). And of his two grandsons he said: "Al-Hasan and al-Husayn are the leaders of the youth of Paradise" (at-Tirmidhi).

Najaf – the city of Imam Ali

Najaf lies on the edge of the desert in southern Iraq. At its heart, beneath a golden dome, stands the shrine of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib: cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet ﷺ, husband of Fatimah, father of Hasan and Husayn; for Sunni Muslims the fourth rightly guided caliph, for Shia Muslims the first Imam. Close by lies Kufa, where Ali lived as caliph; its great mosque, too, is visited by many pilgrims.

Najaf is also one of the oldest centres of Shia learning. According to tradition, Shaykh at-Tusi moved here from Baghdad in the 11th century, and with him begins the long history of the hawzah of Najaf, the traditional seminary. To this day students come from many countries to study Arabic, law and legal theory here; you can read more in the chapter on the Ja'fari school. On the edge of the city stretches Wadi as-Salam, the "Valley of Peace", one of the largest cemeteries in the world: many believers wish to be buried near Imam Ali.

Karbala – the city of Imam Husayn

In Karbala rests Imam Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of the Prophet ﷺ, son of Ali and Fatimah. In the year 61 AH (680 CE), on the 10th of Muharram, the day of Ashura, he was killed here together with members of his family and companions. For all Muslims this is a painful event; for Shia Muslims Karbala stands at the centre of their remembrance, as a symbol of steadfastness, sacrifice and the struggle for justice. Facing the shrine of Imam Husayn is the shrine of his half-brother al-Abbas ibn Ali, who carried the banner at Karbala; between the two stretches a wide square where pilgrims meet. You can learn more about the history and the day of Ashura in the chapter on Sunnis and Shia.

Forty days after Ashura, Shia Muslims observe Arbaeen. Many pilgrims then walk to Karbala, often from Najaf and over several days. Arbaeen is regarded as one of the largest gatherings of people in the world. The hospitality along the way is famous: volunteers put up tents and offer pilgrims food, tea and a place to rest, free of charge.

Kadhimiya in Baghdad

In the north of Baghdad, on the bank of the Tigris, lies the district of Kadhimiya (al-Kazimiyyah). Two Imams from the Prophet's ﷺ family rest here: Musa al-Kazim, the seventh Imam, and his grandson Muhammad al-Jawad, the ninth Imam. After them the shrine with its golden domes is also called al-Kazimayn, "the two Kazims". The title al-Kazim means "the one who restrains his anger" and recalls the believers whom the Quran praises: "who restrain their anger and pardon people" 3:134.

Across the Tigris, the Bridge of the Imams leads over to Adhamiyah, where the mosque of Imam Abu Hanifah stands. Two great imams, two riverbanks, one city: a beautiful picture of how close the traditions of Islam are to one another.

Samarra

Samarra lies on the Tigris north of Baghdad. In the 9th century it was for several decades the capital of the Abbasids, who called it Surra man ra'a, "Whoever sees it rejoices". From this time comes the Great Mosque of Samarra, built under the caliph al-Mutawakkil and once one of the largest mosques in the world. Its landmark is the spiral minaret, the Malwiya: a ramp winds around the outside of the tower all the way to the top. The archaeological city of Samarra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

In the middle of the city stands the al-Askari shrine with its golden dome. Here rest the tenth and eleventh Imams, Ali al-Hadi and his son Hasan al-Askari. Both bear the title al-Askari, which recalls al-Askar, the garrison quarter of Samarra where they lived.

Mashhad

Mashhad in north-eastern Iran grew around the shrine of Imam Ali ar-Rida, usually called Imam Reza in Iran. He was the son of Imam Musa al-Kazim and is, for Twelver Shia Muslims, the eighth Imam. In the year 203 AH (818 CE) he was buried in a small place near Tus, from which today's great city grew. Over the centuries one of the largest shrine complexes in the world has grown around his tomb, with wide courtyards, mosques, libraries and museums. Part of it is the Goharshad Mosque, endowed in the 15th century by the Timurid queen Goharshad: once again a woman whose name is tied to a great place of faith. Mashhad is one of the most visited places of pilgrimage in the Muslim world.

Qom

Qom lies south of Tehran. Here rests Fatimah al-Ma'sumah, the daughter of Imam Musa al-Kazim and sister of Imam ar-Rida. According to tradition she was travelling to her brother in Khurasan when she fell ill; she died in Qom and was buried here. Her shrine with its golden dome forms the heart of the city.

Around this shrine Qom has become one of the great centres of Shia learning. In the early 20th century the hawzah of Qom was re-established, and today students from many countries study here, men and women alike. That a woman from the Prophet's ﷺ family stands at the centre of a city of knowledge moves many visitors.

The Prophet's ﷺ family in other places

The Prophet's ﷺ family is honoured elsewhere too: in Madinah in the cemetery of al-Baqi', where many of his relatives and Companions rest; in Damascus at the shrine of Sayyidah Zaynab, the Prophet's ﷺ granddaughter; and in Cairo, where the mosques of al-Husayn and Sayyidah Zaynab are especially close to people's hearts. Love for the family of the Prophet ﷺ unites all Muslims; that is the first thing these places tell us.

4The Emirates: places of faith, learning and tolerance

Our journey ends at home. The United Arab Emirates is a young country, yet rooted in faith and in the hospitality of the desert. The Founding Father, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, may Allah have mercy on him, gave the country an attitude: generosity, respect and openness towards all people. Seven emirates make up the country, and each has its own places of faith and memory.

Abu Dhabi

The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi, with its white domes, flower-patterned columns and reflecting pools, is one of the most beautiful mosques in the world. It is open to visitors of all faiths, and Sheikh Zayed himself rests in its courtyard. For many guests it is their very first encounter with a mosque, and with the calm that prayer brings.

In 2019 the Grand Imam of al-Azhar, Sheikh Ahmad al-Tayyeb, and Pope Francis signed the Document on Human Fraternity in Abu Dhabi. From this spirit grew the Abrahamic Family House on Saadiyat Island, opened in 2023: a mosque, a church and a synagogue side by side on one shared site. It brings to mind the verse: "O mankind, We created you from a male and a female and made you peoples and tribes so that you may know one another" 49:13.

Al Ain – the oasis city

In the east of the emirate of Abu Dhabi, on the border with Oman and at the foot of Jebel Hafeet, lies the garden city of Al Ain. For centuries the aflaj, ancient channels that bring water from underground, have watered thousands of date palms here. Since 2011 the Cultural Sites of Al Ain have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the first in the Emirates. Sheikh Zayed lived in Al Ain for many years and served here as the Ruler's Representative before he became Ruler of Abu Dhabi; his love for the oasis and for greenery stayed with him all his life. Today Al Ain is also home to the Sheikh Khalifa Mosque, one of the great new mosques of the country.

Dubai

In Dubai, where our platform is made, Jumeirah Mosque is a symbol of the open door. Under the motto "Open Doors. Open Minds.", the Sheikh Mohammed Centre for Cultural Understanding invites visitors to get to know the mosque, ask questions and talk over Arabic coffee and dates: hospitality as we understand it here.

Since 1997 the Dubai International Holy Quran Award has honoured young people from around the world who have memorised the Quran. And in the Quranic Park in Al Khawaneej, opened in 2019, you can stroll through gardens of plants mentioned in the Quran, such as date palms, olives, figs and pomegranates, and discover the wonders the Quran speaks of in a new way.

Sharjah – the city of culture

Right next to Dubai lies Sharjah, the emirate of books, museums and Islamic art. As early as 1998 UNESCO named Sharjah the Cultural Capital of the Arab World; in 2014 it was named Capital of Islamic Culture by ISESCO; and in 2019 it was UNESCO World Book Capital. Its Ruler, Sheikh Dr Sultan bin Muhammad Al Qasimi, is himself a historian and the author of many books.

By the water stands the Sharjah Museum of Islamic Civilization. It shows Quran manuscripts, calligraphy, ceramics and scientific instruments such as astrolabes: a journey through the faith, science and art of the Muslim world. Al Noor Mosque on Khalid Lagoon, built in the Ottoman style, welcomes visitors of all faiths and offers guided tours, and King Faisal Mosque in the city centre is one of the great mosques of the Emirates. You can learn more about these mosques in the chapter on the mosques of the world.

Every autumn the Sharjah International Book Fair, held since 1982, invites visitors to one of the largest book fairs in the world. The modern House of Wisdom, a library and meeting place, bears a name that recalls its famous predecessor in Baghdad. In University City young people from many countries study, for example at the University of Sharjah and the American University of Sharjah. And in the Heart of Sharjah, the lovingly restored old town with its old houses, lanes and the traditional Souq Al Arsah, you can feel what life on the Gulf used to be like.

From Ajman to Fujairah

Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah and Fujairah, too, have their own mosques, forts and stories. On the east coast, in Fujairah, stands the small Al Bidya Mosque of stone and mud with its four domes. It is often called the oldest mosque in the UAE still in use; its exact age is not known for certain. For generations people have gathered here to pray, simply and quietly, between the mountains and the sea.

5What unites these cities

Different as they are, all these cities tell the same story:

• Faith creates places of peace where people stand equal before Allah.
• Knowledge has always been part of faith; the first word of revelation was "Read!" 96:1.
• Hospitality and togetherness made these cities great, from the brotherhood of Madinah and the hospitality along the pilgrims' road to Karbala to life together in the Emirates.

If you would like to hear the verses about these places yourself, start with Surah al-Isra' or Surah Al Imran. And if you ever have the chance to visit one of these cities, go with an open heart, as a guest.